VOLTAGE SIGNAL SYSTEMS

The use of variable voltage for instrumentation signals seems a rather obvious option to explore. Let's see how a voltage signal instrument might be used to measure and relay information about water tank level:

The "transmitter" in this diagram contains its own precision regulated source of voltage, and the potentiometer setting is varied by the motion of a float inside the water tank following the water level. The "indicator" is nothing more than a voltmeter with a scale calibrated to read in some unit height of water instead of volts.

As the water tank level changes, the float will move. As the float moves, the potentiometer wiper will correspondingly be moved, dividing a different proportion of the battery voltage to go across the two-conductor cable and on to the level indicator. As a result, the voltage received by the indicator will be representative of the level of water in the storage tank.
Its limitations is the fact that the system accuracy can be influenced by excessive cable resistance. The cable, having a small amount of resistance along its length, will consequently drop a small amount of voltage, leaving less voltage across the indicator's leads than what is across the leads of the transmitter. This loss of voltage, however small, constitutes an error in measurement

Despite this inherent disadvantage, voltage signals are still used in many applications because of their extreme design simplicity. One common signal standard is 0-10 volts, meaning that a signal of 0 volts represents 0% of measurement, 10 volts represents 100% of measurement, 5 volts represents 50% of measurement, and so on. Instruments designed to output and/or accept this standard signal range are available for purchase from major manufacturers. A more common voltage range is 1-5 volts, which makes use of the "live zero" concept for circuit fault indication.

TACHOGENERATOR

An electromechanical generator is a device capable of producing electrical power from mechanical energy, usually the turning of a shaft. When not connected to a load resistance, generators will generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds, thus making them well-suited as measurement devices for shaft speed in mechanical equipment. A generator specially designed and constructed for this use is called a tachometer or tachogenerator. Often, the word "tach" (pronounced "tack") is used rather than the whole word

By measuring the voltage produced by a tachogenerator, you can easily determine the rotational speed of whatever its mechanically attached to. One of the more common voltage signal ranges used with tachogenerators is 0 to 10 volts. Obviously, since a tachogenerator cannot produce voltage when its not turning, the zero cannot be "live" in this signal standard. Tachogenerators can be purchased with different "full-scale" (10 volt) speeds for different applications. Although a voltage divider could theoretically be used with a tachogenerator to extend the measurable speed range in the 0-10 volt scale, it is not advisable to significantly overspeed a precision instrument like this, or its life will be shortened.

Tachogenerators can also indicate the direction of rotation by the polarity of the output voltage. When a permanent-magnet style DC generator's rotational direction is reversed, the polarity of its output voltage will switch. In measurement and control systems where directional indication is needed, tachogenerators provide an easy way to determine that. Tachogenerators are frequently used to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power: conveyor belts, machine tools, mixers, fans, etc.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting input and apply a voltage signal to the noninverting input, we find that the output voltage of the op-ampclosely follows that input voltage

As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as Vout increases, that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to decrease the voltage differential between inputs, which acts to bring the output down. The circuit will quickly reach a point of stability (known as equilibrium), where the output voltage is just the right amount to maintain the right amount of differential, which in turn produces the right amount of output voltage. Taking the op-amp's output voltage and coupling it to the inverting input is a technique known as NEGATIVE FEEDBACK, and it is the key to having a self-stabilizing system. This stability gives the op-amp the capacity to work in its linear (active) mode, as opposed to merely being saturated fully "on" or "off" as it when used as a comparator, with no feedback at all.
Because the op-amp's gain is so high, the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained almost equal to Vin. Let's say that our op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 200,000. If Vin equals 6 volts, the output voltage will be 6 volts. This creates just enough differential voltage to be manifested at the output terminal, and the system holds there in balance. So for practical calculations, we can assume that the differential voltage between the two input wires is held by negative feedback exactly at 0 volts.

Advantage to using an op-amp with negative feedback is that the actual voltage gain of the op-amp doesn't matter, so long as its very large. In this circuit, the output voltage would still be equal to the non-inverting input voltage

INTEGRATOR

There are applications where we need precise function, called INTEGRATION. Here, the op-amp circuit would generate an output voltage proportional to the magnitude and duration that an input voltage signal has deviated from 0 volts. Stated differently, a constant input signal would generate a certain rate of change in the output voltage: differentiation in reverse. To do this, all we have to do is swap the capacitor and resistor in the differentiator circuit

As before, the negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input will be held at 0 volts. If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts, there will be no current through the resistor, therefore no charging of the capacitor, and therefore
The output will not change.
However, if we apply a constant, positive voltage to the input, the op-amp output will fall negative at a linear rate, in an attempt to produce the changing voltage across the capacitor necessary to maintain the current established by the voltage difference across the resistor. Conversely, a constant, negative voltage at the input results in a linear, rising (positive) voltage at the output. The output rate-of-change of voltage will be proportional to the value of the input voltage.

One application for this device would be to keep a "running total" of radiation exposure, or dosage, if the input voltage was a proportional signal supplied by an electronic radiation detector. Nuclear radiation can be just as damaging at low intensities for long periods of time as it is at high intensities for short periods of time. An integrator circuit would take both the intensity (input voltage magnitude)
and time into account, generating an output voltage representing total radiation
dosage.
Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow, producing a signal representing total quantity of water that has passed by the flowmeter. This application of an integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the industrial instrumentation trade.

DIFFERENTIATOR

By introducing electrical reactance into the feedback loops of op-amp amplifier circuits, we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. Drawing their names from their respective functions a DIFFERENTIATOR produces a voltage output proportional to the input voltage's rate of change.We can build an op-amp circuit which measures change in voltage by measuring current through a capacitor, and outputs a voltage proportional to that current.

The right-hand side of the capacitor is held to a voltage of 0 volts, due to the "virtual ground" effect. Therefore, current "through" the capacitor is solely due to change in the input voltage. A steady input voltage won't cause a current through
C, but a changing input voltage will. Capacitor current moves through the feedback resistor, producing a drop across it, which is the same as the output voltage. A linear, positive rate of input voltage change will result in a steady negative voltage at the output of the op-amp. Conversely, a linear, negative rate of input voltage change will result in a steady positive voltage at the output of the op-amp. This polarity inversion from input to output is due to the fact that the input signal is being sent (essentially) to the inverting input of the op-amp, so it acts like the inverting amplifier mentioned previously. The faster the rate of voltage change at the input the greater the voltage at the output

Applications for this, include rate-of-change indicators for process instrumentation. One such rate-of-change signal application might be for monitoring (or controlling) the rate of temperature change in a furnace, where too high or too low of a temperature rise rate could be detrimental. The DC voltage produced by the differentiator circuit could be used to drive a comparator, which would signal an alarm or activate a control if the rate of change exceeded a preset level.
In process control, the derivative function is used to make control decisions for maintaining a process at setpoint, by monitoring the rate of process change over time and taking action to prevent excessive rates of change, which can lead to an unstable condition. Analog electronic controllers use variations of this circuitry to perform the derivative function.

AVERAGER AND SUMMER CIRCUIT

If we take three equal resistors and connect one end of each to a common point, then apply three input voltages, the voltage seen at the common point will be the mathematical average of the three.

This circuit is commonly known as a PASSIVE AVERAGER, because it generates an average voltage with non-amplifying components. Passive simply means that it is an unamplified circuit. The large equation of the averager circuit describes the voltage produced by multiple voltage sources connected together through individual resistances. Since the three resistors in the averager circuit are equal to each other, we can simplify the equation by writing R1, R2, and R3 simply as R.

If we take a passive averager and use it to connect three input voltages into an op-amp amplifier circuit with a gain of 3, we can turn this averaging function into an addition function. The result is called a noninverting summer circuit.

With a voltage divider composed of a 2 kΩ / 1 kΩ combination, the noninverting amplifier circuit will have a voltage gain of 3. By taking the voltage from the passive averager, which is the sum of V1, V2, and V3 divided by 3, and multiplying that average by 3, we arrive at an output voltage equal to the sum of V1, V2, and V3. The reversal in polarity is what makes this circuit an inverting summer.

Summer (adder) circuits are quite useful in analog computer design, just as multiplier and divider circuits would be. Again, it is the extremely high differential gain of the op-amp which allows us to build these useful circuits with a bare minimum of components.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

A signal is any kind of physical quantity that conveys information. Audible speech is certainly a kind of signal, as it conveys the thoughts (information) of one person to another through the physical medium of sound. Hand gestures are signals, too, conveying information by means of light.
An analog signal is a kind of signal that is continuously variable, as opposed to having a limited number of steps along its range (called digital). A well-known example of analog vs. digital is that of clocks: analog being the type with pointers that slowly rotate around a circular scale, and digital being the type with decimal number displays or a "second-hand" that jerks rather than smoothly rotates. The digital clock, on the other hand, cannot convey any unit of time smaller than what its display will allow for. The type of clock with a "second-hand" that jerks in 1-second intervals is a digital device with a minimum resolution of one second. Both analog and digital signals find application in modern electronics. In the early days of industrial instrumentation, compressed air was used as a signaling medium to convey information from measuring instruments to indicating and controlling devices located remotely. Clean, dry air at approximately 20 pounds per square inch (PSI) was supplied from an air compressor through tubing to the measuring instrument and was then regulated by that instrument according to the quantity being measured to produce a corresponding output signal. For example, a pneumatic (air signal) level "transmitter" device set up to measure height of water (the "process variable") in a storage tank would output a low air pressure when the tank was empty, a medium pressure when the tank was partially full, and a high pressure when the tank was completely full.

ANALOGY FOR DIVIDED FEEDBACK

We know that the voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier configuration can never be less than unity (1).

The "output" point will move twice as far as the "input" point, and in the same direction. The output voltage will equal twice the input, with the same polarity. Applying a negative input voltage is analogous to moving downward from its level "zero" position, resulting in an amplified output displacement that is also negative.
If we alter the resistor ratio R2/R1, we change the gain of the op-amp circuit. This means moving the input point, which similarly changes the displacement "gain" of the circuit. Now, any input signal will become amplified by a factor of four instead of by a factor of two.
With the inverting configuration, the ground point of the feedback voltage divider is the op-amp's inverting input. With equal-value resistors, the output voltage will be equal in magnitude to the input voltage, but of the opposite polarity. A positive input results in a negative output. Changing the resistor ratio R2/R1 changes the gain of the amplifier circuit.
With the inverting amplifier configuration, gains of less than 1 are possible,. Reversing R2 and R1 values the output displacement will be one-half the input displacement.